Ethnography of the Amish

Environment
The Amish originated in Switzerland in 1525, but none exist there today. They eventually migrated to North America and presently, they are concentrated in 28 states (70% of which live in the states of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana) and Ontario, Canada. Within each state, geographical regions are separated into settlements, and within each settlement are church districts or congregations.

Since the Amish are scattered throughout the United States, it is difficult to provide a single description of the climate as it varies depending on the geographical location. Ontario experiences extreme conditions throughout the year, with January being the coldest month (-4°C (25°F)), marked by heavy rainfall and snowfall. On the other hand, the province is humid and warmest in July (23°C (74°F)). Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana are regions of moderate climate with average temperatures of 50.6°F, 32.7 in of snowfall, and 40 in of rainfall.

The Amish reside in rural areas. They do not have a high level of competition for resources with other cultures since they reject, or selectively use them in accordance with their cultural values in order to avoid distractions and preserve intimate family and community relationships. Although modern society is increasingly and heavily dependent on technological innovations, the Amish limit their use and eliminate the need to rely on such resources to function in their daily lives. 

Although in recent years it has been on the road to a steady decline, farming has been an integral part of Amish life as it was a popular occupation. It has also been a beneficial practice that is harmonious to family life and demonstrative of the value of hard work. Within the farming environment, the Amish grow plants such as corn, celery, beets, carrots, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, and raise animals such as hens, chickens, pigs, deer, cows, turkeys, ducks, goats, and sheep.

Adaptations
Since the Amish haven’t settled in the United States for a long time and adaptations develop over a long period, physical adaptations to their environment are a reflection of their origins in Switzerland/Europe. For example, the Amish have fair skin because they were not exposed to much sunlight. Therefore, they lack vitamin D production, which is dependent on UV light from the sun.

                                       

Culturally, the Amish have selectively used technology in opposition to the modern developments that challenge traditional ways of life. For instance, the Amish avoid using public power and seek electricity through other sources such as batteries to power buggies, fans, lamps, etc. They believe that the otherwise reliance on public electricity connects them too closely to the secular world, and therefore brings worldy influences that disrupt the private sphere of the home and community. Another cultural adaptation that is exhibited by the Amish is their mode of dress. Women wear dresses with long sleeves, a bonnet, and stockings. Men typically wear suits and coats. Their plain and simple clothing has a dual function that symbolizes their cultural values rooted in tradition, but also serves to keep them warm in cold temperatures. Moreover, the Amish have made strategic use of the agricultural landscape as farming has been a significant foundation to Amish society. As a cultural group, farming has allowed them to preserve and spread their ideals through a sense of community, ethics of hard work, and management of resources.

Language

The Amish speak English as well as a dialect of German known as Pennsylvania German or Pennsylvania Dutch, which belongs to the Indo-European family. Pennsylvania Dutch is unique because it is not a written language, although some attempts have been made in dictionaries and a few books. I believe this is a reflection of the group’s discerning use of technology. Writing can be viewed as a tool of technology. Therefore, in an attempt to decelerate modern advancements, perhaps the Amish did not see written language to be a necessary or urgent task and instead saw spoken language to be sufficient. Moreover, it could be seen as an effort to maintain exclusivity and preservation solely within the Amish community, and in that sense fosters a sense of locality and community that does not spread to the outside world.

Gender Roles

Amish men and women take on conventional gender roles, in which men are the primary breadwinners and women assume a subordinate position and adopt the domestic responsibilities of the household. These gender roles are fairly strictly defined, but crossing over can occur without suffering from negative repercussions. For example, there are some instances where Amish women own their own businesses and their husbands play a secondary role in helping in the operation of the business. Moreover, although men are typically in charge of making spiritual, family, and financial decisions, they still consult with their wives. At the same time, traditional gender roles are instilled upon children through their contributions to the family. Since children are expected to help with chores in the home, males learn to work closely with their fathers in matters pertaining to labor, while females familiarize themselves to internal affairs of cooking and cleaning. Culture has a tremendous influence on gender roles in Amish culture. Gender identities are constructed by the society whereby they perform the roles expected of them by social conventions. Religion is an integral part of their culture, and through this affiliation, the Amish are socialized into specific roles in which men serve as the spiritual leader, and women take on a more nurturing role to provide spiritual support to the children. The protagonist in “The Blessed Curse” would not be accepted in the Amish culture because they uphold beliefs based upon the teachings of the Bible. She would be considered an outsider since it does not recognize transgendered characteristics.
                            

Subsistence

The traditional subsistence pattern of the Amish is agriculture. Farming has been an important occupational source that also fosters familial values and division of labor. Work is divided among men and women. Men typically engage in large-scale labor-intensive activities in the field, while women are involved in small-scale responsibilities such as canning, shucking corn, shelling peas, and quilting. The Amish diet is pretty variable but their consumption is largely based on fresh foods that involve very little processing. Main food items include corn, celery, beets, carrots, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, eggs, chicken, beef, pork, and milk. Livestock produce meat year round, but certain fruits and vegetables are only seasonal so they are preserved in cans. They receive adequate nutritional intake as their diet is composed of a good combination of dairy, protein, fruits, vegetables, and breads. It is beneficial that they are able to consume foods that are organically produced, but the recent shift away from agriculture has resulted in the Amish resorting to more store-bought, processed, and packaged foods.

Economic Systems

The Amish produce a surplus of fruits and vegetables since these products are only available in certain seasons. These items are produced in large quantities and then canned so that they can be saved until the winter when they cannot be grown. They do not exhibit specialization of labor since they choose not to use modern labor-saving technologies that maximize productivity and efficiency. Also, the Amish do not practice any form of redistribution of goods or wealth since they prefer to be self-reliant, away from governmental or political systems. The type of currency they use is the American dollar, in the form of cash, check, and credit cards. They participate in trade on a local, national, and global level, by selling goods such as furniture. Although trading has beneficial effects to the economy, it has also been met with negativity in which the promotion of businesses through the use of technology has been seen as a source of controversy. Furniture makers who catalog their products online are frowned upon since this behavior challenges traditional Amish views.

Marriage

                    

The Amish follow a monogamous marriage pattern. Men and women choose their own partners, but the culture follows endogamy rules that require them to marry within the Church. Since the Amish relatively live in isolation, cousin marriages are common as the result of intermingling within the community over several generations. They do not practice any type of economic exchange for the marriage but wedding guests provide gifts, and males and females are equally valued in the relationship although their roles differ. The Amish community is patrilocal, in which the woman lives with her husband and his family. Furthermore, homosexual relationships are absolutely forbidden, as it does not align with the beliefs of the Church.

Kinship

The Amish practice a patrilineal descent pattern, which is a reflection of their highly patriarchal society. Matrilineal descent lines are not completely ignored, but are less emphasized. The father possesses the most authority within the family and inheritance patterns follow such a descent pattern, as goods and property are passed on to the youngest son. Naming patterns in the Amish kinship system are most comparable to the Eskimo system in which the nuclear family is individually identified while relatives are lumped together in categories.

Social Organization and Political Structure

The Amish culture is generally egalitarian. Since their social life is extremely dependent on Biblical principles, and church leaders make up the political structure of the culture, social organization and political structure go hand in hand. The church forbids them from holding political power in the outside government. However, within the community, social organization occurs through church districts, where men are the ones that are able to hold official positions as deacons, ministers/preachers, and bishops. Although men serve as leaders and are responsible for deciding on important community issues, women still maintain the right to vote/nominate as part of their participation as church members. The Amish ministry possess social and political power and are therefore highly respected since they are essentially responsible for the spiritual well-being of its members. Shunning results when in violation of the Ordnung, which sets rules and restrictions in alignment with the Scriptures. This type of punishment ostracizes the member from the community, giving him/her time for reflection in an attempt to alter the individual's behavior.
                         

The Role of Violence

The Amish follow a policy of "non-resistance" and therefore condone retaliation and violence. However, from time to time violence can be present in the form of juvenile crime, church leaders' abuse of power, sexual or physical abuse in the family, etc. Violence is viewed negatively by the culture since such deviant behaviors undermine their Anabaptist values to forgive and love their enemies just as Jesus Christ would.

                           

Religion

The Amish practice Anabaptism, which is a form of Christianity. The religion is monotheistic, having Jesus Christ as the focus of worship. The Amish originated from several different Anabaptist groups during the Protestant Reformation in the 16^th century. The Amish, first and foremost, strictly adhere to the Biblical teachings of Jesus in how they behave in their daily lives. In this manner, they uphold the separation of church and state, and accept the church to hold supreme authority over governmental powers. The Amish believe in voluntary baptism, believing it to be a personal decision to be fully committed to the church, once entering adulthood. Baptism into the Amish church implies a lifelong spiritual promise to live by Christian principles, and deviance from such vows can lead to shunning. Since the culture is entirely predicated upon religion in all aspects of life, the Amish would not be able to function without it.

Art                                   
                               

Amish artwork is primarily a mode of business. Handcrafted goods such as furniture, baskets, and quilts are created, but they generally don’t have much use for art because such creative expression denotes pride, which lies in direct opposition to the ideals of humility and simplicity that they promote. However, the Amish employ music at church as an expression of praise. Church songs are derived from the hymnal called The Ausbund, which recounts the Anabaptist movement of the Protestant Reformation. The Amish do not play musical instruments since it is a form of self-expression, which they believe is a pretentious display of talent. In this manner, art is predominantly used for the sole purpose of enhancing religious expression. Christian hymns are sung in unison to worship as an entire community.

Conclusion: Cultural Change

The Amish culture has been affected by other cultures in its exposure to the modern world. In a way, this has a positive impact on the culture since it gives them the opportunity to reinforce their beliefs and resist conformity in the midst of the secularity and corruption that underlie contemporary culture. At the same time, this can also dangerously lead to a negative impact, if they divert their attention from their core values and become heavily influenced by the pervasiveness of other cultures. However, I believe the Amish culture to be healthy and thriving since they have been self-reliant and persisted over generations. They have a weak influence on the modern world, but as they isolate themselves from the secular world, they maintain a resilient spiritual commitment that serves to preserve their cultural identity. 

Amish children exploring a forklift.
The Amish culture is constantly confronted and tempted with the modernity of other cultures.

Bibliography

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/amish-faq/

http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Index.asp

http://amishamerica.com/amish-online-encyclopedia/

http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/amish-out-of-order/amish-101-facts/

http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A4574ME.html
http://www.amishoriginals.net/

http://www.pennlive.com/midstate/index.ssf/2012/04/religious_questions_for_pennsy.html
http://www.advertiser-tribune.com/page/content.detail/id/509804.html?nav=5005&showlayout=0
http://womensspace.wordpress.com/category/womens-birthing-rights/
http://www.mapministry.org/resources/newsletter-folders/2004-newsletters/2004-september
http://www.beachyam.org/choirs.htm

The Culture of Art

1. Functions of Early Art
a. What were the cave artists trying to say? The paintings on the Lascaux Caves were the artists’ interpretations of their everyday lives. It documented their way of living, showed characteristics (animal life) of their environment, and depicted their experiences.

b. Why do you think that there were so many animals and not as many people in the paintings?
I think that animals dominated the themes of the paintings since they played a significant role in hunter gatherer society. I believe it was a way for the painters to illustrate the kinds of animals that they considered to be sacred. The paintings served as a conspicuous display of the animals they hunted or as a ritualistic practice to bring them good fortune for the hunt.

c. What can the paintings tell us about other aspects of the life of cave dwellers or Paleolithic people?
The cave paintings provide a glimpse into the nomadic lifestyle of the Paleolithic people. For example, referred to as the “old stone age,” the Paleolithic era was a time period that was characterized by the early use of stone tools. Stone was one of the materials used for engraving. The paintings also tell us about other their aspects of their culture, such as their propensity for sharing. Although hunter gatherers are known to share their resources, this is not limited to just food, but also their knowledge, history, and experiences.

d. What difficulties did these early humans navigate in order to paint these pictures?
Some of the difficulties the cave painters encountered included obtaining a light source, using various techniques to accommodate depending on the rock support (characteristics/composition of the wall space), accessing the walls with respect to the limitation of height, and finding/obtaining raw materials/minerals for pigment/color as they lacked choice.

e. Speculate as to three (3) possible functions of this art to early humans.
1) Communication to cave visitors: Art could be used as a preservation of history, record-keeping of important events, and a representation of their lifestyle.
2) Expression: Art can be a form of cathartic activity in which the painters engaged in as their hobby/recreation/leisure. For example, perhaps they could utilize different techniques and certain parts of their painting can be distinguished by color to express emotion.
3) Ritualistic practice in regards to hunting: Art could function as illustrations of successful hunts or perhaps as a custom in hopes for future victories.

2. Commonalities in Function:  Compare the possible functions of the art from the Lascaux Caves to modern art, in all of its various forms.  What are some commonalities in function you can find in how the art of early humans and modern humans?
Art for early and modern humans share common functionalities in its abilities to communicate and express. Art provides information about people and places of that time. In both eras, humans have been able to transmit messages perhaps sometimes in a way that words themselves cannot express. It functions to convey certain emotions and opinions from the artist’s point of view, yet the multidimensional aspect of art allows a two-way street in which half of the communication channel opens up for the viewer/audience to interpret it and assign meaning.  

3. Introduce Us to Your Favorite Art
a. For those who practice this form of artistic expression, what function does it serve?  What
are they trying to communicate?
Photography functions to record and preserve personal and collective memories of different aspects of life - people, places, events, etc. Pictures communicate/share experiences and are visual reflections of the past. For example, the image included below is an Ansel Adams piece. His collections are largely composed of landscape photographs of Yosemite National Park because it holds significant memories as it was the location where he took his first pictures. While attempting to communicate the beauty of the environment, his photographs also function as reminders of his childhood and family.

b. Is there a complete culture surrounding this art form, i.e., a language, a set of behaviors, form of dress, etc.?  Describe and identify the features of this culture.
Although photography does not employ actual words, it still has a language, which is expressed through the different techniques utilized. For example, the use of different angles communicate power relationships - high-angle shots looking down at the subject indicate inferiority. Moreover, a closed composition creates a feeling of entrapment.

c. How does this art form (and its culture) benefit society?  Are there any detrimental affects?
Photography attempts to capture real moments in real time. Therefore, pictures are often thought to produce an accurate depiction of reality. However, this is not necessarily true - with the emergence of increasing technology, it is easy to manipulate these images and alter meaning, for example, through photoshop. Pictures of celebrities can be transformed in a way to make them appear slimmer than they really are, and this has devastating consequences on those that accept these images to be true and are influenced by a certain standard regarding body image.


References:
The Ansel Adams Gallery

Politics and Violence

1. Rules or laws against killing are essentially a cultural universal, meaning all cultures have rules regarding the killing other people and the punishments for breaking these rules. How do the Yanomamo rules regarding killing and the consequences for breaking these rules differ from the rules in Western cultures in general?

“The Yanomamo have no written language, precise number system, formal laws, or institutionalized adjudicators such as chiefs or judges.  Although there are customs and general rules about proper behavior, individuals violate them regularly when it seems in their interests to do so.” In contrast, Western cultures have a judicial system that strictly enforces rules against killing, but consequences differ depending on the circumstance - whether it be homicide, self-defense, drunk driving, etc. Unlike Yanomamo rules, laws in the United States, for example, are formal, written, and therefore punishments are rendered accordingly based on what has been devised by officials. Individuals don't violate such laws on a regular basis perse, and in the case of involuntary manslaughter, the criminal kills without the intention - this differs from the Yanomamo in which revenge killings occur with the exact purpose of killing in retaliation.

  

2. Describe the process of revenge killings as it is expressed in Yanomamo populations.

Revenge killings occur in raiding parties of typically 10-20 among villages. Warfare is often commonly initiated by conflicts with women or the death of a kinsmen. The day before they raid, they create an effigy to represent the target victim of the enemy village, even though they usually shoot the first man they come in contact with. Most of the times, victims are shot by more than one member of the raiding party.

3. Revenge killings are a dangerous for those who take part. What are the benefits of obtaining the status of unokais? How do they compare to the benefits of being a non-unokais? Why would a man choose to become an unokais instead of being a non-unokais?

High reproductive success is associated with unokais status. Revenge killings are highly valued and viewed as "cultural successes," being regarded with valor. Specifically, Yanomamo culture upholds the importance of ambition as being an attractive quality of the unokais. Such benefits/advantages are not observed in non-unokais.  

4. Identify and describe the relationship between revenge killings and these aspects of the Yanomamo culture. How do they influence and affect each other?
a. Political structure
Political structure is organized by kinship, in which the headmen of the village serves as the leader of the largest descent group. He is the political leader who makes the ultimate decision whether or not revenge killings should be in order.
b. Social Status/Social Organization
Social status is affected by revenge killings. For example, political power is awarded to unokais in the form of positions in public offices. Men who engage in violence and partake in violence are revered with high esteem, particularly desirable traits that deem them responsible and hard-working.
c. Kinship
Members of the village are organized by kinship. However, there is not a static definition of who belongs to which village since they all are connected in different ways. Groups function to collaborate and protect members in a collective effort. Kin groups are significant, in which a common reason for revenge killings is the bereavement of a close kin. Even after fission, members possess a sense of loyalty and alliance to their kin and express their unwillingness to raid. - However, this seems to be a mutual understanding and is generally understood/accepted by all members. At the same time, this could lead to animosity towards the resident group, causing one to rejoin the original group and retaliate against the current group that was responsible for the killing of his kin. Kinship density influences revenge killings since retaliation is provoked by the strength of relatedness.
d. Marriage & Reproduction
Headmen have multiple wives, and therefore several children, which leads to various families. A village can consist of kin groups that are interrrelated, so revenge killings and bereavement become complex with increasing kinship density since they have close kin across villages who they have established relationships with. Also, data reveals that compared to non-unokais, unokais have better chances in attracting mates (with qualities such as risk-taking, aggressiveness, ambition), and therefore more likely to get marrried, and successfully reproduce.

5. Behaviors that are usually labeled as “anti-social”, such as killing other people, are generally thought to be a bad thing to do under most circumstances, other than defense. Why do we need laws against something that no one should want to do? Use your reading of the article to help you explain your answer.

Although cultural assumptions often lead to the idea that killing is a socially unacceptable behavior, laws are necessary to prevent instinctive drives/urges that compel people to make rash decisions in which the individual sees legitimacy in his/her actions in the heat of the moment. Even if no one should want to behave in this manner, people still do, and a society must devise rules in how to deal with it. Terms of legitimacy/justification differs according to cultural values.

Family and Kinship

My aunt, Yong-In Kim, was born in Seoul, South Korea in 1960 and immigrated to the United States in 1983. Public schools in Korea have become lenient over time, but historically, they have been extremely strict and require students to wear uniforms, maintain their hair short and neatly groomed, and teachers would even punish troublemakers by spanking them. Koreans also place high emphasis on respecting elders, and interactions with them are distinguished through formal speech. At the same time, however, individuals who meet for the first time even have to speak to their counterparts of the same age through formal speech, until they feel comfortable and get to know each other before mutually consenting to speak informally. In addition, my aunt grew up as a very strict and devout Catholic, and her family’s piety was only further amplified when her two brothers became priests.
I was very comfortable conducting the interview because I have a fairly close relationship with my aunt. This made the interview an easy process since she was able to divulge any kind of information. At the same time, it affected my role as an anthropologist since I already had prior knowledge of her family background. It would have been a different story if I interviewed someone unrelated to me because I would probably discover parts of their history and cultural/ethnic background that I never knew before. It would eliminate bias on my own thoughts and feelings, and perhaps they would feel uncomfortable sharing or revealing certain information.
The only relative that lives in America is my aunt on my mom’s side. They are extremely close and see each other or at least communicate everyday. Their brothers are still in Korea and only talk to them on special occasions. However, my uncles visit each other frequently and spend a lot of time together at church functions since they share the same profession. There is a trend toward small families since my uncles are both priests and therefore celibate. The only family on my mom’s side is ours and my aunt’s family with only three children. On the other hand, my dad has five brothers and one sister, and nuclear families make up each household. Since all his siblings live close to their mother in Korea, they are very close and see each other often. However, because of the distance, my dad only keeps in contact with them a few times a year. On both my mom and dad’s side, there are no ethnic differences, although I am sure there would be a significant cultural and language barrier if they were to exist. There is no specific emphasis on maternal or paternal lines. Their general attitudes toward older and younger individuals in the family align with the perspective of their country. For example, they expect those that are younger to call elders by their appropriate titles that indicate “older brother” or “older sister,” instead of simply their names, in addition to formalized speech.
I only know my aunt’s family from my mom’s side really well since they are the only ones living in America, and therefore I socialize more with them than the relatives on my dad’s side. There is also less of a cultural and language barrier since they can speak English and have lived in America for most of their lives. On my mom’s side, I think there is a balance in which members influence decisions since my uncles are priest and the family in general has grown up with such conservatism. Cooperation and compromise are key in settling down to decisions. In contrast, I believe my dad’s family to be more strongly patrilineal since it is made up largely of men. The husbands influence decision-making, at least when it comes to economical issues, and I think this is also due to the fact that most of the women do not work. In both my mom and dad’s side, family members who marry into the family are not treated any differently because they hold Christian values to love and respect everyone equally. There are no differences in attitudes based upon gender on my mom’s side, but there are on my dad’s side because of its patrilineality. I feel like the men are more entitled to such power because they are the breadwinners. However, it is interesting to see this since I mentioned before that they share Christian morals to treat members the same. Through this exercise, I’ve learned that my family has been significantly influenced by their social, cultural, and ethnic background. Much of my parents’ conservatism is a reflection of their individual family values while practicing Catholicism and living in Korea. It shapes the person I am today because as an American citizen, I have grown up in a completely different environment and generation in which I became socialized through education and the media to stray away from the ideas that were strictly enforced by my parents.

Subsistence and Economy

Part 1:
1. Identify the benefits of both types of subsistence patterns.
Hunter gatherers live in an egalitarian society in which food resources are equally distributed and shared among members of the foraging group. As nomadic people, instead of lugging around luxuries or material possessions, hunter gatherers carry the barest necessities for subsistence. Since the food foragers are highly mobile and cannot afford to preserve surplus goods, differences in status are not dictated by one’s accumulation or wealth of resources. Moreover, hunter gatherers have a great deal of leisure time, in which close and intimate family, social, and spiritual/religious relations are significant. Because small group size is an important factor in mobility, cooperative social organization is a benefit among the food foraging cultures. On the other hand, the introduction of agriculture paved the way for a more sedentary lifestyle. With the advent of technologies to bolster food production with increased efficiency, surplus crop cultivation became possible. Therefore, food production is not only intended to meet the carrying capacity of the land, but could also create a surplus that could in turn be traded or sold for money (profitability). Industrial food production allowed for better control and manipulation of the environment to produce the crops they favor, as well as improved efficiency and conservation of human labor.

2. Identify the costs (or disadvantages) of both subsistence patterns. 
A disadvantage of food foraging societies is their mobility. They have to travel across different environments and climates throughout the year, and this is related to the level of energy expenditure. For example, in scorching weather, it is possible that the amount of food obtained from hunting could not be enough to compensate for the energy spent. Furthermore, food foragers have to constantly accommodate the carrying capacity in response to the instability and unpredictability of such seasonal or ecological changes. Agricultural societies suffer from the centralization of power. With the growth of cities, urbanization resulted in political and economic control over rural populations in regards to their surplus. With limited independence on how to manage their surplus, farmers were exploited and forced into peasantry. Moreover, although industrial food production enhanced productivity, technologies replaced human labor thereby driving down wages and people out of jobs.

3. Which subsistence pattern provides a healthier diet?  Explain.
I don’t think I can truly provide an answer as to which subsistence pattern provides a healthier diet. Both subsistence patterns have advantages to maintaining a well-balanced diet. Food foragers could obtain organic foods that are naturally rich in nutrients, while agriculturalists maintain control over the plants and animals they domesticate depending on their subsistence needs.

4. Discuss why you think those early human populations 12,000 years ago made the transition into agriculture?  Think like an early human, not a modern one! Your answer should not mention “machines” at all.
The transition into agriculture was made possible with a more permanent settlement. Crop cultivators could remain close to their cultivated fields and produce more food on large plots of land (maximum agricultural production with increased efficiency). Agriculture also generated changes in social organization/division of labor - since it didn’t require as many people to manage the crops, others could focus their time to developing tools in order to further productivity.

Part 2:
1. There is a direct relationship between the availability of surplus and the ability to trade. Explain the meaning of this statement. 
The availability of surplus allows for the ability to trade because goods aren’t merely being produced to meet the carrying capacity. The amount of food production is not limited to fulfilling a group’s subsistence needs, but involves an excess that could be traded or sold for profit.

2. Identify and describe two (2) social benefits of trade. 
A social benefit of trade is the proliferation of communication. Through trade, different communities could interact, share, and exchange various forms of culture, and thus goods, knowledge, and ideas across borders. Another social benefit of trade is the increased diversity and choices for consumers. With the arrival of goods and resources from various parts of the world, individuals can enjoy products from cultures other than their own.  

3. Identify and describe two (2) negative social results of the development of trade. 
The development of trade has a negative consequence in producing an unequal distribution of power. For example, agribusinesses have territorial power and control over rural populations and have driven away smaller family-owned farms. And while the exchange of culture can be regarded as a social benefit, at the same time, it can also be seen as a detrimental result, if manipulated. Specifically, the imposition of culture by “developed” countries onto those that are considered “underdeveloped” could be dangerous, offensive, and ethnocentric. A developed country could take the leading role and attempt a cultural invasion.

4. Given your answer in the question #1, explain the relationship between the development of agriculture and the development of trade.  Again, think like humans 12,000 years ago.
The development of agriculture eventually led to the development of trade because of the availability of surplus. Humans were capable of producing enough food for subsistence and had excess. However, in order to compensate for goods that they were not able to directly produce or easily obtain themselves, they acquired through the process of trading.

Language Experiment

Part 1:

1. I found this experiment to be extremely difficult since we were not allowed to use any kind of spoken language. I was trying to communicate with my partners about the things that went on during my day, but was limited in my knowledge of appropriate hand signs and body language to clearly express what I wanted to say. If I couldn't think of suitable motions to go along with my thoughts, I resorted to pointing at objects or pictures to refer to things and people I was talking about. Luckily, there are certain body movements and signals that are generally known, such as the gestures for "hi," "driving," "running," "eating" that put us on the same page, and once my partners had an idea of the context of the conversation, it was easier to nod and direct their thoughts to the focus of my intended message.
2. My partners were pretty clueless in the beginning and it took awhile for us to try to come up with a good method for communicating. At first, I initiated the conversation and just started to gesture, but this approach appeared to be haphazard and they had a difficult time figuring out what I was saying. Therefore, instead of me signaling and them merely guessing, they changed their way of communicating by taking on a more active role and straightforwardly asking me specific questions and I responded using non-verbal clues.  
3. If my partners and I were from two different cultures, I think that the culture using symbolic language would have the advantage in communicating complex ideas because gestures are not universal and different meanings can be conveyed, so therefore messages would be misconstrued. The speaking culture might think that the other culture is incompetent, inferior, or rude since they do not know the cultural context behind their actions. I took a course on Deaf people in our culture and learned that they feel misunderstood and are often stigmatized and stereotyped because one of the ways "culture" is thought of, is having a linguistic community with spoken language. Those who speak develop a particular view about deaf people and have a hard time communicating/knowing them, consider them to be disabled/handicapped, and may treat them with pity as a result. I learned that it is common for people from spoken culture to interact with the deaf in this manner instead of viewing them as a people of distinct culture with a particular history and linguistic community of their own.  

Part 2:

1. I was able to last for the full 15 minutes of using only speech for communicating but it was most difficult to not be able to use hand movements or changes in tone. I feel like the differences in the sounds of our voices are tremendously significant in affecting meaning, so it was extremely hard not being able to express certain emotions behind my sentences.
2. My partners had a hard time of clearly understanding me because they did not know the context of what I was communicating. For example, I was talking about a co-worker that is fairly unproductive and forgetful. The simple statement "James didn't mail the letters" could mean that he hasn't gotten to it yet, he didn't have to mail them, or that he has repeatedly made the same mistake and caused an inconvenience. However, without intonations or facial expressions, and the fact that my partners did not know the relationship between James and the rest of my co-workers, it was very difficult for my partners to understand the gravity of the situation.  
3. Non-speech language is significant in our ability to communicate effectively in face-to-face interactions because certain elements of the emotional content of talk comes out through facial expressions and gestures. At the same time, even people in the same culture read signs differently. For example, some people might consider those who cross their arms to be shy, reserved, stand-offish, or angry. However, it may just be that they feel comfortable resting their arms in that position or that they don't have anywhere else to place them.
4. I work with children with autism and I feel like they have a hard time reading body language a lot of the times. Communication is divided between verbal and body language and it is beneficial to be able to read such signs since they set the mood and provide clues, giving a better sense to the intended meaning behind what people are trying to say. For example, the angle/direction people sit, the use of eye contact, and proxemics can offer insight into the level of interest in a conversation. However, an environmental condition in which it might be a benefit to not reading body language could perhaps be in frightening situations between a mother and her child, in which it is probably better if the child could not read the mother's expressions or mannerisms so that he/she wouldn't panic and create more stress for the parent. 

Part 3:

1. Yes, I think the experiment in Part 1 would have been easier if I was allowed to use written language because I would be able to use diction in order to communicate meaning, like in a story or essay. Also, certain emotions can be evoked by using punctuation marks such as ellipses or exclamation points. 
2. The advantage that written language provides a culture is preservation - preservation in a sense that written language allows for memory, so that cultures can pass down important information with more accuracy. Written language can also cause new forms of social life. For example, in America, written language has surpassed the realm of print into the digital age, and as a result has transformed a different kind of socialization that diminishes the gap between time and space so that it is easier for people to communicate via e-mail, IM, video chat, etc.
3. Written language has revolutionized the distribution of information as it can be rapidly transmitted across physical borders. Language is a significant element of culture, so therefore this phenomenon also contributes to the circulation of commodities and people around the world as they migrate, interact, and exchange knowledge and goods.

Environmental Adaptations: The Zulu & Andean Indians

The Zulu

1. The Zulu occupy a subtropical region of South Africa known as KwaZulu-Natal, which is surrounded by the Indian Ocean and an abundance of mountains. The average temperature is about 21C (70F). However, the climate fluctuates throughout the year to great extremes between the summer and winter months. While it is scorching hot and rainy in the summer, the Zulu experience heavy snow and suffer the awfully cold and dry weather in the winter. Their province has been characterized by adequate rainfall, especially during the summer, which functioned to provide fertile soil, thereby contributing to the overall productivity of agriculture as a fundamental means of subsistence. Unfortunately though, this trend is rapidly changing and the fate of the Zulu is at jeopardy. Annual rainfall has either occurred less frequently causing drought, or with tremendous magnitude producing flooding.
2. In response to the high temperature of the summer months, the Zulu have physically adapted in their production of melanin, which causes dark pigmentation of the skin as a protection mechanism against the harmful UV rays.
                               
3. Culturally, the Zulu had to adapt to changing rainfall conditions by diversifying their economical practices since their agriculture has been threatened. Alternatively, they have had to find other modes of earning income, such as making household products to sell such as baskets, brooms, and doormats. Moreover, the Zulu have made changes to their farming practices by making strategic use of the agricultural landscape in order to compensate for the inconsistent and unpredictable rainfall. For example, increasing plant distances maximizes the space that is ideal for nutrient and water absorption.
                                
4. I think the Zulu would best fit the African American race on the basis of the popular notion of "race" being associated with the physical characteristic of skin color.

Andean Indians 

1. The Andean Indians inhabit the Andes Mountains of South America. Climate varies quite a bit depending on the region (North, Central, and South) since they differ in their altitudes as well as their distances from the equator. In the winter, temperatures can average about less than 52F with about 4 inches of rain, and around 68F-72F in the summer with 8 inches of rain. For the Andean Indians, altitude is an extremely important environmental factor that plays a significant role in determining all forms of life, including aspects of climate, vegetation, animal habitation. 
2. In response to the environmental stress of high altitude, the Andean Indians have physically adapted through their increased production of hemoglobin and lung expandability. As a result, higher concentrations of oxygen are able to be carried by the blood to prevent hypoxia, which is caused by a deficiency in oxygen at lower atmospheric pressure in high mountainous regions.
                                                    
3. Furthermore, the Andean Indians also had to develop cultural adaptations in response to high altitudes, which greatly impacted plant and animal life. The kinds of animals they could raise and the types of plants they could grow obviously depended on the temperature, soil, climate, and rainfall - all of which were limited by the altitude. Llamas and alpacas were the animals that could survive in such harsh elevations, and they produced food (milk and wool) and warm clothes (hide and wool). Another source of food was through the cultivation of potatoes, which were able to subsist in the cold environment.
                                 
4. Again, on the basis of physical appearance, the Andean Indians would best be characterized as indigenous peoples of the Native American race.

Summary: Adaptation vs. Race

I believe that the concept of adaptation has more explanatory power over the idea of race in describing a population, and is therefore more useful to anthropologists. Race is such a social and cultural construction that cannot be definitively determined. Its fluidity and ambiguity are maintained by differences in people's experiences and knowledge about their own culture as well as others. The races I have assigned to each population is not an accurate depiction or description and lacks meaning because it is merely predicated upon a public display. On the other hand, identifying physical and cultural adaptations is a much more reliable approach to better understanding both populations since it takes into account how they have interacted with their environments both biologically and culturally.


References
"Adaptation, Institutions, and Development" 
"Andes Mountains"
"Andes Mountains" 
"Nutritional and Physical Degeneration: Chapter 14" 
"Three High-Altitude Peoples, Three Adaptations to Thin Air" 
"Zulu"

The Nacirema

Part A
The Nacirema highly emphasizes the significance of body rituals in a series of purification and healing practices. Their culture can be described as follows:

1. Hierarchical
   Nacirema culture involves a structural organization of medicine men, holy-mouth-men, and listeners. Their services are compensated through gifts, especially those of medicine men, who sit at the top of the hierarchical ladder. Medicine men wield so much power since they are believed to supply potions and charms that are absolutely imperative for the people's survival. Holy-mouth-men use magical tools to perform mouth-rites that are important for sustaining morality and healthy social relationships.  Lastly, listeners possess the power of exorcism by drawing upon traumatic experiences. In this system of organization, the Nacirema worship these practitioners and are extremely dependent on them for their well-being.
2. Routinized
   The body rituals of the Nacirema follow a routine pattern that occur several times throughout the year. For example, rituals are repetitive and performed everyday in the shrine room. Moreover, the Nacirema pay a routine visit to the holy-mouth-men annually, and specialized body rituals such as the special women's rites mentioned, are executed at a fixed number of times during lunar months. In this manner, the Nacirema engage their time in a standardized way that are specific to each cultural practice. 
3. Gendered
   It is noted that gender differences exist in the body rituals of the Nacirema. In the discussion of sadism, Miner states that the contrasting rituals among men and women involves factors of severity and incidence. Men are engaged in harsh rites that occur on a daily basis, but women endure even more brutal rituals that last longer even though they only occur a few times throughout the month.
4. Dedicated
   The description of the Nacirema body rituals allow us to see their extreme level of dedication. As part of their culture that is learned, the Nacirema participate in these activities no matter how stringent and regardless of the results. For example, regarding the mouth-rites, Miner mentions, "The extremely sacred and traditional character of the rite is evident in the fact that the natives return to the holy-mouth-men year after year, despite the fact that their teeth continue to decay." Even though the magic substances are counteracting, the Nacirema are extremely adherent to their conventional beliefs and rituals. Furthermore, this fact is illustrated when Miner mentions the dangerousness of the temple ceremonies which, "...may even kill the neophyte, in no way decreases the people's faith in the medicine men." This goes back to the idea that the Nacirema show the utmost respect for the medicine men and are completely committed to the rituals, as they place all their trust in them even when undergoing risky behavior.      
5. Secretive
   The body rituals are characterized by how incredibly intimate, secretive, and exclusive they are. Miner reveals that the ceremonies are met with reservation even among family members and are only shared with children for initiation purposes. Moreover, there is also a sense of mistrust as the Nacirema shed suspicion on parents for casting evil spirits in this process.  

Part B

1. As an American, I feel like my choice of words are fairly accurate to describe the culture. We are definitely a society that is highly dependent on people in positions of power. Since we live in a country with advanced healthcare and it is readily available, we respect medical professionals and seek their advice. It is not only in this aspect, but even in the political sphere - Americans look up to the president to provide the solution to critical issues. Moreover, America is a society that values physical appearance. In this manner, the definition of "beauty" is constantly changing, and we are dedicated to keeping up with such ideals by adapting different styles and looks. Women are more commonly known to be concerned about their appearance, and therefore engage in routinized activities such as putting on make-up and getting a tan, plastic surgery, or nails/hair done. 
2. The word "secretive" might reveal a bias since it suggests negative assumptions that the people cannot be trusted and can therefore be equated with deception or trickery. The word "gendered" can also indicate a sense of judgment because it implies discrimination, that the culture does not treat men and women equally. On the other hand, I feel that the words "hierarchical," "routinized," and "dedicated" are relatively neutral because they simply describe the organization and functionality of the rituals in an objective way, and not a subjective manner in how they behave when performing such practices.
3. As a result, the word "secretive" could be replaced with the description that their knowledge is highly specialized or individualized. On the other hand, I'm not sure if gender is a concept that can ever be free from bias.
4. It is imperative that we try to limit ethnocentrism when describing other cultures because it inhibits us from truly understanding them without taking into consideration the context in which they arise from. People all over the world come from extremely diverse biological, economic, and social backgrounds, and therefore judgments based on our personal viewpoints result from a myopic perspective that imposes the values of our culture onto theirs. However, I think it is extremist to say that it is possible to completely avoid personal bias. Like the article on ethnocentrism suggests, "everybody is ethnocentric," and a means of alleviating this problem is critical awareness, recognition, and acknowledgement when bias occurs. We can attempt to control for it but we must not be ignorant and instead be alert and conscious of it and the importance of its avoidance in our overall understanding of cultures other than our own.